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HI there....welcome To test visual acuity, the nurse should ask the patient to cover each eye separately and read the eye chart with glasses and without, as appropriate. Fundamental of Nursing Before teaching any procedure to the patient, the nurse must first assess the patient’s willingness to learn and his current knowledge. Fundamentals of Nursing A blood pressure cuff that is too narrow can cause a falsely elevated blood pressure reading. Fundamentals of Nursing When preparing a single injection for a patient who takes regular and NPH insulin, the nurse should draw the regular insulin into the syringe first because it is clear and can be measured more accurately than the NPH insulin, which is turbid. Fundamentals of Nursing Rhonchi refers to the rumbling sounds heard on lung auscultation; they are more pronounced during expiration than during inspiration. Fundamentals of Nursing Gavage refers to forced feeding, usually through a gastric tube (a tube passed into the stomach by way of the mouth). Fundamentals of Nursing According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, physiologic needs (air, water, food, shelter, sex, activity, and comfort) have the highest priority. Fundamentals of Nursing Checking the identification band on a patient’s wrist is the safest and surest way to verify a patient’s identity. Fundamentals of Nursing A patient’s safety is the priority concern in developing a therapeutic environment. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should place the patient with a Sengstaken-Blakemore tube in semi-Fowler’s position. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse can elicit Trousseau’s sign by occluding the brachial or radial artery; hand and finger spasms during occlusion indicate Trousseau’s sign and suggest hypocalcemia. Fundamentals of Nursing For blood transfusion in an adult, the appropriate needle size is 16 to 20G. Fundamentals of Nursing Pain that incapacities a patient and can’t be relieved by drugs is called intractable pain. Fundamentals of Nursing In an emergency, consent for treatment can be obtained by fax, telephone, or other telegraphic transmission. Fundamentals of Nursing Decibel is the unit of measurement of sound. Fundamentals of Nursing Informed consent is required for any invasive procedure. Fundamentals of Nursing A patient who can’t write his or her name to give consent for treatment must have his or her X witnessed by two persons, such as a nurse, priest, or doctor. Fundamentals of Nursing The Z-track I.M. injection technique seals medication deep into the muscle, thereby minimizing skin irritation and staining. It requires a needle that is 1’’ (2.5 cm) or longer. Fundamentals of Nursing A registered nurse (RN) should assign a licensed vocational nurse (LVN) or licensed practical nurse (LPN) to perform bedside care, such as suctioning and medication administration. Fundamentals of Nursing The therapeutic purposed of a mist tent is to increase hydration of secretions. Fundamentals of Nursing If a patient can’t void, the first nursing action should be bladder palpation to assess for bladder distention. Fundamentals of Nursing The patient who uses a cane should carry it on the unaffected side and advance it at the same time as the affected extremity. Fundamentals of Nursing To fit a supine patient for crutches, the nurse should measure from the axilla to the sole and add 2” (5 cm) to that measurement. Fundamentals of Nursing Assessment begins with the nurse’s first encounter with the patient and continues throughout the patient’s stay. The nurse obtains assessment data through the health history, physical examination, and review of diagnostic studies. Fundamentals of Nursing The appropriate needle size for an insulin injection is 25G and ⅝" (1.5 cm) long. Fundamentals of Nursing Residual urine refers to urine that remains in the bladder after voiding. The amount of residual urine normally ranges from 50 to 100 ml. Fundamentals of Nursing The five stages of the nursing process are assessment, nursing diagnosis, planning, implementation, and evaluation. Fundamentals of Nursing Planning refers to the stage of the nursing process in which the nurse assigns priorities to nursing diagnoses, defines short-term and long-term goals and expected outcomes, and establishes the nursing care plan. Fundamentals of Nursing Implementation refers to the stage of the nursing process in which the nurse puts the nursing care plan into action, delegates specific nursing interventions to members of the nursing team, and charts patient responses to nursing interventions. Fundamentals of Nursing Evaluation refers to the stage of the nursing process in which the nurse compares objective and subjective data with the outcome criteria and, if needed, modifies the nursing care plan, making the nursing process circular. Fundamentals of Nursing In the event of fire, the nurse should (1) remove the patient, (2) call the fire department, (3) attempt to contain the fire by closing the door, and (4) extinguish the fire, if it can be done safely. Fundamentals of Nursing Before administering any as need pain medication, the nurse should ask the patient to indicate the pain’s location. Fundamentals of Nursing Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that they shouldn’t receive blood components donated by other people. Fundamentals of Nursing When providing oral care for an unconscious patient, the nurse should position the patient on the side to minimize the risk of aspiration. Fundamentals of Nursing During assessment of distance vision, the patient should stand 20’ (6.1 m) from the chart. Fundamentals of Nursing The ideal room temperature for a geriatric patient or one who is extremely ill ranges form 66º to 76º F (18.8º to 24.4º C). Fundamentals of Nursing Normal room humidity ranges from 30% to 60%. Fundamentals of Nursing Hand washing is the single best method of limiting the spread of microorganisms. Hands should be washed for 10 seconds after routine contact with a patient and after gloves are removed. Fundamentals of Nursing To catheterize a female patient, the nurse should place her in the dorsal recumbent position. Fundamentals of Nursing A positive Homan’s sign may indicate thrombophlebitis. Fundamentals of Nursing Electrolytes in a solution are measured in milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L). A milliequivalent equals the number of milligrams per 100 milliliters of a solution. Fundamentals of Nursing Metabolism takes a place in two phases: anabolism (the constructive phase) and catabolism (the destructive phase). Fundamentals of Nursing The basal metabolic rate represents the amount of energy needed to maintain essential body functions. It is measured when the patient is awake and resting, hasn’t eaten for 14 to 18 hours, and is in a comfortable, warm environment. Fundamentals of Nursing Dietary fiber (roughage), which is derived from cellulose, supplies bulk, maintains adequate intestinal motility, and helps establish regular bowel habits. Fundamentals of Nursing Alcohol is metabolized primarily in the liver. Smaller amounts are metabolized by the kidneys and lungs. Fundamentals of Nursing Petechiae refers to tiny, round, purplish red spots that appear on the skin and mucous membranes as a result of intradermal or submucosal hemorrhage. Fundamentals of Nursing Purpura refers to a purple skin discoloration caused by blood extravasation. Fundamentals of Nursing Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (C6PD) deficiency is an inherited metabolic disorder characterized by red blood cells that are deficient in G6PD, a critical enzyme in aerobic glycolysis. Fundamentals of Nursing According to the standard precautions recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the nurse shouldn’t recap needles after use because most needle sticks result from missed needle recapping. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse administers a drug by I.V. push by delivering the dose directly into a vein, I.V. tubing, or catheter with a needle and syringe. Fundamentals of Nursing When changing the ties on a tracheostomy tube, the nurse should leave the old ties in place until the new ones are applied. Fundamentals of Nursing A nurse should have assistance when changing the ties on a tracheostomy tube. Fundamentals of Nursing A filter is always used for blood transfusions. Fundamentals of Nursing A four-point (quad) cane is indicated when a patient needs more stability than a regular cane can provide. Fundamentals of Nursing The patient should carry a cane on the unaffected side to promote a reciprocal gait pattern and distribute weight away from the affected leg. Fundamentals of Nursing A good way to begin a patient interview is to ask “What made you seek medical help?” Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should adhere to standard precautions for blood and body fluids when caring for all patients. Fundamentals of Nursing Potassium (K+) is the most abundant cation in intracellular fluid. Fundamentals of Nursing In the four-point gait (or alternating gait), the patient first moves the right crutch followed by the left foot and then the left crutch followed by the right foot. Fundamentals of Nursing In the three-point gait, the patient moves two crutches and the affected leg simultaneously and then moves the unaffected leg. Fundamentals of Nursing In the two-point gait, the patient moves the right leg and the left crutch simultaneously and then moves the left leg and the right crutch. Fundamentals of Nursing Vitamin B complex, the water-soluble vitamins essential for metabolism, include thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pyridoxine (B6), and cyanocobalamin (B12). Fundamentals of Nursing When being weighed, an adult patient should be lightly dressed and shoeless. Fundamentals of Nursing Before taking an adult’s oral temperature, the nurse should ensure that the patient hasn’t smoked or consumed hot or cold substances in the past 15 minutes. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse shouldn’t take a rectal temperature on an adult patient if the patient has a cardiac disorder; anal lesions, or bleeding hemorrhoids or has recently undergone rectal surgery. Fundamentals of Nursing In a patient with cardiac problems, rectal temperature measurement may stimulate a vagal response, leading to vasodilation and decreased cardiac output. Fundamentals of Nursing When recording pulse amplitude and rhythm, the nurse should use these descriptive measures: +3 indicates a bounding pulse (readily palpable and forceful); +2, a normal pulse (easily palpable); +1, a thready or weak pulse (difficult to detect); and 0, an absent pulse (not detectable). Fundamentals of Nursing The intraoperative period begins when a patient is transferred to the operating room bed and ends when the patient is admitted to the postanesthesia recovery unit. Fundamentals of Nursing On the morning of surgery, the nurse should ensure that the informed consent form has been signed; that the patient hasn’t taken anything by mouth since midnight, has taken a shower with antimicrobial soap, has had mouth care (without swallowing the water, has removed common jewelry, and has received preoperative medication as prescribed; and that vital signs have taken and recorded. Artificial limbs and other prostheses are usually removed. Fundamentals of Nursing Comfort measures, such as positioning the patient, performing backrubs, and providing a restful environment, may decrease the patient’s need for analgesics or may enhance their effectiveness. Fundamentals of Nursing A drug has three names: its generic name, which is used in official publications; its trade name or brand name (such as Tylenol), which is selected by the drug company; and its chemical name, which describes the drug’s chemical composition. Fundamentals of Nursing The patient should take a liquid iron preparation through a straw to avoid staining the teeth. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should use the Z-track method to administer an I.M. injection of iron dextran (Imferon). Fundamentals of Nursing An organism may enter the body through the nose, mouth, rectum, urinary or reproductive tract, or skin. Fundamentals of Nursing In descending order, the levels of consciousness are alertness, lethargy, stupor, light coma, and deep coma. Fundamentals of Nursing To turn a patient by logrolling, the nurse folds the patient’s arms across the chest; extends the patient’s legs and inserts a pillow between them, if indicated; places a draw sheet under the patient; and turns the patient by slowly and gently pulling on the draw sheet. Fundamentals of Nursing The diaphragm of the stethoscope is used to hear high-pitched sounds such as breath sounds. Fundamentals of Nursing A slight blood pressure difference (5 to 10 mm Hg) between right and left arms is normal. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should place the blood pressure cuff 1'' (2.5 cm) above the antecubital fossa. Fundamentals of Nursing When instilling ophthalmic ointments, waste the first bed of ointment and then apply from the inner canthus to the outer canthus; twist the medication tube to detach the ointment. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should use a leg cuff to measure blood pressure in an obese patient. Fundamentals of Nursing If the blood pressure cuff is applied too loosely, the reading will be falsely elevated. Fundamentals of Nursing Ptosis refers to eyelid drooping. Fundamentals of Nursing A tilt table is useful for a patient with a spinal cord injury, orthostatic hypotension, or brain damage because it can move the patient gradually from a horizontal to a vertical (upright) position. Fundamentals of Nursing To perform venipuncture with the least injury to the vessel, the nurse should turn the bevel upward when the vessel’s lumen is larger than the needle and turn it downward when the lumen is only slightly larger than the needle. Fundamentals of Nursing To move the patient to the edge of the bed for transfer, follow these steps: (1) Move the patient’s head and shoulders toward the edge of the bed. (2) Move the patient’s feet and legs to the edge of the bed (crescent position). (3) Place both the arms well under the patient’s hips and straighten the back while moving the patient toward the edge of the bed. Fundamentals of Nursing When being measured for crutches, a patient should wear his or her shoes. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should attach a restraint to a part of the bed frame that moves with the head, not to the mattress or side rails. Fundamentals of Nursing The mist in a mist tent should never become so dense that it obscures clear visualization of the patient’s respiratory pattern. Fundamentals of Nursing To administer heparin subcutaneously, the nurse should follow these steps: (1) Clean, but don’t rub, the site with alcohol. (2) Stretch the skin taut or pick up a well-defined skin fold. (3)Hold the shaft of the needle in a dart position. (4)Insert the needle into the skin at a right (90-degree) angle. (5)Firmly depress the plunger; but don’t aspirate. (6)Leave the needle in place for 10 seconds. (7)Withdraw the needle gently at the same angle it was inserted. (8)Apply pressure to the injection site with an alcohol pad. Fundamentals of Nursing For a sigmoidoscopy, the nurse should place the patient in a knee-chest or Sims’ position, depending on the doctor’s preference. Fundamentals of Nursing Maslow’s hierarchy of needs must be met in the following order: physiologic (oxygen, food, water, sex, rest, and comfort) safety and security, love and belonging, self-esteem and recognition, and self-actualization. Fundamentals of Nursing When caring for patient with a nasogastric tube, the nurse should apply a water-soluble lubricant to the nostril to prevent soreness. Fundamentals of Nursing During gastric lavage, a nasogastric tube is inserted, the stomach is flushed, and ingested substances are removed through the tube. Fundamentals of Nursing In documenting drainage on a surgical dressing, the nurse should include the size, color, and consistency of the drainage, for example, “10 mm of brown mucoid drainage noted on dressing.” Fundamentals of Nursing To elicit Babinski’s reflex, the nurse strokes the sole of the patient’s foot with a moderately sharp object, such as thumbnail. Fundamentals of Nursing In a positive Babinski’s reflex, the great toe dorsiflexes and the other toes fan out. Fundamentals of Nursing When assessing a patient for bladder distention, the nurse should check the contour of the lower abdomen for a rounded mass above the symphysis pubis. Fundamentals of Nursing The best way to prevent pressure ulcers is to reposition the bedridden patient at least every 2 hours. Fundamentals of Nursing Antiembolism stockings decompress the superficial blood vessels, thereby reducing the risk of thrombus formation. Fundamentals of Nursing The most convenient veins for venipuncture in a adult patient are the basilic and median cubital veins in the antecubital space. Fundamentals of Nursing From 2 to 3 hours before beginning a tube feeding, the nurse should aspirate the patient’s stomach contents to verify adequate gastric emptying. Fundamentals of Nursing People with type O blood are considered to be universal donors. Fundamentals of Nursing People with type AB blood are considered to be universal recipients. Fundamentals of Nursing Herts (Hz) refers to the unit of measurement of sound frequency. Fundamentals of Nursing Hearing protection is required when the sound intensity exceeds 84 dB; double hearing protection is required if it exceeds 104 dB. Fundamentals of Nursing Prothrombin, a clotting factor, is produced in the liver. Fundamentals of Nursing If a patient is menstruating when a urine sample is collected, the nurse should note this on the laboratory slip. Fundamentals of Nursing During lumbar puncture, the nurse must note the initial intracranial pressure and the cerebrospinal fluid color. Fundamentals of Nursing A patient who can’t cough to provide a sputum sample for culture may require a heated aerosol treatment to facilitate removal of a sample. Fundamentals of Nursing If eye ointment and eyedrops must be instilled in the same eye, the eyedrops should be instilled first. Fundamentals of Nursing When leaving an isolation room, the nurse should remove the gloves before the mask because fewer pathogens are on the mask. Fundamentals of Nursing Skeletal traction is applied to a bone using wire pins or tons. It is the most effective means of traction. Fundamentals of Nursing The total parenteral nutrition solution should be stored in a refrigerator and removed 30 to 60 minutes before use because delivery of a chilled solution can cause pain, hypothermia, venous spasm, and venous constriction. Fundamentals of Nursing Medication isn’t routinely injected I.M. into edematous tissue because it may not be absorbed. Fundamentals of Nursing When caring for a comatose patient, the nurse should explain each action to the patient in a normal voice. Fundamentals of Nursing When cleaning dentures, the sink should be lined with a washcloth. Fundamentals of Nursing A patient should void within 8 hours after surgery. Fundamentals of Nursing An EEG identifies normal and abnormal brain waves. Fundamentals of Nursing Stool samples for ova and parasite tests should be delivered to the laboratory without delay or refrigeration. Fundamentals of Nursing The autonomic nervous system regulates the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Fundamentals of Nursing When providing tracheostomy care, the nurse should insert the catheter gently into the tracheostomy tube. When withdrawing the catheter, the nurse should apply intermittent suction for no more than 15 seconds and use a slight twisting motion. Fundamentals of Nursing A low-residue diet includes such as foods as roasted chicken, rice, and pasta. Fundamentals of Nursing A rectal tube should not be inserted for longer than 20 minutes; it can irritate the mucosa of the rectum and cause a loss of sphincter control. Fundamentals of Nursing A patient’s bed bath should proceed in this order: face, neck, arms, hands, chest, abdomen, back, legs, perineum. Fundamentals of Nursing When lifting and moving a patient, the nurse should use the upper leg muscles most to prevent injury. Fundamentals of Nursing Patient preparation for cholecystography includes ingestion of a contrast medium and a low-fat evening meal. Fundamentals of Nursing During occupied bed changes, the patient should be covered with a black blanket to promote warmth and prevent exposure. Fundamentals of Nursing Anticipatory grief refers to mourning that occurs for an extended time when one realizes that death is inevitable. Fundamentals of Nursing The following foods can alter stool color: beets (red), cocoa (dark red or brown), licorice (black), spinach (green), and meat protein (dark brown). Fundamentals of Nursing When preparing a patient for a skull X-ray, have the patient remove all jewelry and dentures. Fundamentals of Nursing The fight-or-flight response is a sympathetic nervous system response. Fundamentals of Nursing Bronchovesicular breath sounds in peripheral lung fields are abnormal and suggest pneumonia. Fundamentals of Nursing Wheezing refers to an abnormal, high-pitched breath sound that is accentuated on expiration. Fundamentals of Nursing Wax or a foreign body in the ear should be gently flushed out by irrigation with warm saline solution. Fundamentals of Nursing If a patient complains that his hearing aid is “not working,” the nurse should check the switch first to see if it’s turned on and then check the batteries. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should grade hyperactive biceps and triceps reflexes +4. Fundamentals of Nursing If two eye medications are prescribed for twice-daily instillation, they should be administered 5 minutes apart. Fundamentals of Nursing In a postoperative patient, forcing fluids helps prevent constipation. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse must administer care in accordance with standards of care established by the American Nurses Association, state regulations, and facility policy. Fundamentals of Nursing The kilocalorie (kcal) is a unit of energy measurement that represents the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1º C. Fundamentals of Nursing As nutrients move through the body, they undergo ingestion, digestion, absorption, transport, cell metabolism, and excretion. Fundamentals of Nursing The body metabolizes alcohol at a fixed rate regardless of serum concentration. Fundamentals of Nursing In an alcoholic beverage, its proof reflects its percentage of alcohol multiplied by 2. For example, a 100-proof beverage contains 50% alcohol. Fundamentals of Nursing A living will is a witnessed document that states a patient’s desire for certain types of care and treatment, which depends on the patient’s wishes and views and quality of life. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should flush a peripheral heparin lock every 8 hours (if it wasn’t used during the previous 8 hours) and as needed with normal saline solution to maintain patency. Fundamentals of Nursing Quality assurance is a method of determining whether nursing actions and practices meet established standards. Fundamentals of Nursing The five rights of medication administration are the right patient, right medication, right dose, right route of administration, and the right time. Fundamentals of Nursing Outside of the hospital setting, only the sublingual and transligual forms of nitroglycerin should be used to relieve acute anginal attacks. Fundamentals of Nursing The implementation phase of the nursing process involves recording the patient’s response to the nursing plan, putting the nursing plan into action, delegating specific nursing interventions, and coordinating the patient’s activities. Fundamentals of Nursing The Patient’s Bill of Rights offers guidance and protection to patients by stating the responsibilities of the hospital and its staff toward patients and their families during hospitalization. Fundamentals of Nursing To minimize the omissions and distortion of facts, the nurse should record information as soon as it is gathered. Fundamentals of Nursing When assessing a patient’s health history, the nurse should record the current illness chronologically, beginning with the onset of the problem and continuing to the present. Fundamentals of Nursing Drug administration is a dependent activity. The nurse can administer or withhold a drug only with the doctor’s permission. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse shouldn’t give false assurance to a patient. Fundamentals of Nursing After receiving preoperative medication, a patient isn’t competent to sign an informed consent form. Fundamentals of Nursing When lifting a patient, a nurse uses the weight of her body instead of the strength in her arms. Fundamentals of Nursing A nurse may clarify a doctor’s explanation to a patient about an operation or a procedure but must refer questions about informed consent to the doctor. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse shouldn’t use her thumb to take a patient’s pulse rate because the thumb has a pulse of its own and may be confused with the patient’s pulse. Fundamentals of Nursing An inspiration and an expiration count as one respiration. Fundamentals of Nursing Normal respirations are known as eupnea. Fundamentals of Nursing During a blood pressure measurement, the patient should rest the arm against a surface because using muscle strength to hold up the arm may raise the blood pressure. Fundamentals of Nursing Major unalterable risk factors for coronary artery disease include heredity, sex, race, and age. Fundamentals of Nursing Inspection is the most frequently used assessment technique. Fundamentals of Nursing Family members of an elderly person in a long-term care facility should transfer some personal items (such as photographs, a favorite chair, and knickknacks) to the person’s room to provide a homey atmosphere. Fundamentals of Nursing The upper respiratory tract warms and humidifies inspired air and plays a role in taste, smell, and mastication. Fundamentals of Nursing Signs of accessory muscle use include shoulder elevation, intercostal muscle retraction, and scalene and sternocleidosmastoid muscle use during respiration. Fundamentals of Nursing When patients use axillary crutches, their palms should bear the brunt of the weight. Fundamentals of Nursing Activities of daily living include eating, bathing, dressing, grooming, toileting, and interacting socially. Fundamentals of Nursing Normal gait has two phases: the stance phase, in which the patient’s foot rests on the ground, and the swing phase, in which that patient’s foot moves forward. Fundamentals of Nursing The phases of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should follow standard precautions in the routine care of all patients. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should use the bell of the stethoscope to listen for venous hums and cardiac murmurs. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse can assess a patient’s general knowledge by asking questions such as “Who is the president for the United States?” Fundamentals of Nursing Cold packs are applied for the first 20 to 48 hours after an injury; then heat is applied. During cold application, the pack is applied for 20 minutes and then removed for 10 to 15 minutes to prevent reflex dilation (rebound phenomenon) and frostbite injury. Fundamentals of Nursing The pons is located above the medulla and consists of white matter (sensory and motor tracts) and gray matter (reflex centers). Fundamentals of Nursing The autonomic nervous system controls the smooth muscles. Fundamentals of Nursing A correctly written patient goal expresses the desired patient behavior, criteria for measurement, time frame for achievement, and conditions under which the behavior will occur. It is developed in collaboration with the patient. Fundamentals of Nursing The optic disk is yellowish pink and circular with a distinct border. Fundamentals of Nursing A primary disability results from a pathologic process; a secondary disability, from inactivity. Nurses usually are held liable for failing to keep an accurate count of sponges and other devices during surgery. Fundamentals of Nursing The best dietary sources of vitamin B6 are liver, kidney, pork, soybeans, corn, and whole-grain cereals. Fundamentals of Nursing Iron-rich foods, such as organ meats, nuts, legumes, dried fruit, leafy vegetables, eggs, and whole gains, generally have low water content. Fundamentals of Nursing Collaboration refers to joint communication and decision making between nurses and doctors designed to meet patients’ needs by integrating the care regimens of both professions in one comprehensive approach. Fundamentals of Nursing Bradycardia refers to a heart rate of fewer than 60 beats/minute. Fundamentals of Nursing A nursing diagnosis is a statement of a patient’s actual or potential health problems that can be resolved, diminished, or otherwise changed by nursing interventions. Fundamentals of Nursing During the assessment phase of the nursing process, the nurse collects and analyzes three types of data: health history, physical examination, and laboratory and diagnostic test data. Fundamentals of Nursing The patient’s health history consists primarily of subjective data, information supplied by patient. Fundamentals of Nursing The physical examination includes objective data obtained by inspection, palpation, percussion, and auscultation. Fundamentals of Nursing When documenting patient care, the nurse should write legibly, use only standard abbreviations, and sign every entry. The nurse should never destroy or attempt to obliterate documentation or leave vacant lines. Fundamentals of Nursing Factors that affect body temperature include time of day, age, physical activity, phase of menstrual cycle, and pregnancy. Fundamentals of Nursing The most accessible and commonly used artery for measuring a patient’s pulse rate is the radial artery, which is compressed against the radius to take the pulse rate. Fundamentals of Nursing The normal pulse rate of a resting adult is 60 to 100 beats/minute. The rate is slightly faster in women than in men and much faster in children than in adults. Fundamentals of Nursing Laboratory test results are an objective form of assessment data. Fundamentals of Nursing The measurement systems most often used in clinical practice are the metric system, apothecaries’ system, and household system. Fundamentals of Nursing Before signing an informed consent, a patient should know whether other treatment options are available and should understand what will occur during the preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative phase; the risk involved; and the possible complications. The patient also should have a general idea of the time required from surgery to recovery and should have an opportunity to ask questions. Fundamentals of Nursing A patient must sign a separate informed consent form for each procedure. Fundamentals of Nursing During percussion, the nurse uses quick, sharp tapping of the fingers or hands against body surfaces to produce sounds (that helps determine the size, shape, position, and density of underlying organs and tissues), elicit tenderness, or assess reflexes. Fundamentals of Nursing Ballottement is a form of light palpation involving gentle, repetitive bouncing of tissues against the hand and feeling their rebound. Fundamentals of Nursing A foot cradle keeps bed linen off the patient’s feet, which prevent skin irritation and breakdown, especially in a patient with peripheral vascular disease or neuropathy. Fundamentals of Nursing If the patient is a married minor, permission to perform a procedure can be obtained form the patient’s spouse. Fundamentals of Nursing Gastric lavage is the flushing of the stomach and removal of ingested substances through a nasogastric tube. It can be used to treat poisoning or drug overdose. Fundamentals of Nursing During the evaluation step of the nursing process, the nurse assesses the patient’s response to therapy. Fundamentals of Nursing Bruits commonly indicate a life- or limb-threatening vascular disease. Fundamentals of Nursing O.U. means each eye; O.D., right eye; and O.S, left eye. Fundamentals of Nursing To remove a patient’s artificial eye, the nurse depresses the lower lid. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should use a warm saline solution to clean an artificial eye. Fundamentals of Nursing A thready pulse is very fine and scarcely perceptible. Fundamentals of Nursing Axillary temperature usually is 1º F lower than oral temperature. Fundamentals of Nursing After suctioning a tracheostomy tube, the nurse must document the color, amount, consistency, and odor of secretions. Fundamentals of Nursing On a medication prescription, the abbreviation p.c. means that the medication should be administered after meals. Fundamentals of Nursing After bladder irrigation, the nurse should document the amount, color, and clarity of the urine and the presence of clots or sediment. Fundamentals of Nursing Laws regarding patient self-determination vary from state to state. Therefore, the nurse must be familiar with the laws of the state in which she works. Fundamentals of Nursing Gauge refers to the inside diameter of a needle. The smaller the gauge, the larger the diameter. Fundamentals of Nursing An adult normally has 32 permanent teeth. Fundamentals of Nursing After turning a patient, the nurse should document the position used, time turned, and skin assessment findings. Fundamentals of Nursing PERRLA is an abbreviation for normal pupil assessment findings: pupils equal, round, and reactive to light with accommodation. Fundamentals of Nursing When purcussing a patient’s chest for postural drainage, the nurse’s hands should be cupped. Fundamentals of Nursing When measuring a patient’s pulse, the nurse should assess the rate, rhythms, quality, and strength. Fundamentals of Nursing Before transferring a patient from a bed to a wheelchair, the nurse should push the wheelchair’s footrests to the sides and lock its wheels. Fundamentals of Nursing When assessing respirations, the nurse should document the rate, rhythm, depth, and quality. Fundamentals of Nursing For a subcutaneous injection, the nurse should use a ⅝" 25G needle. Fundamentals of Nursing The notation “AA & O x 3” indicates that the patient is awake, alert, and oriented to person (knows who he is), place (knows where he is), and time (knows the date and time). Fundamentals of Nursing Fluid intake includes all fluids taken by mouth, including foods that are liquid at room temperature, such as gelatin, custard, and ice cream; I.V. fluids; and fluids administered in feeding tubes. Fluid output includes urine, vomitus, and drainage (such as from a nasogastric tube or from a wound) as well as blood loss, diarrhea or stool, and perspiration. Fundamentals of Nursing After administering an intradermal injection, the nurse shouldn’t massage the area because massage can irritate the site and interfere with results. Fundamentals of Nursing When administering an intradermal injection, the nurse should hold the syringe almost flat against the patient’s skin (at about a 15-degree angle) with the bevel up. Fundamentals of Nursing To obtain an accurate blood pressure, the nurse should inflate the manometer 20 to 30 mm Hg above the disappearance of the radial pulse before releasing the cuff pressure. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should count an irregular pulse for 1 full minute. Fundamentals of Nursing A patient who is vomiting while lying down should be placed in a lateral position to prevent aspiration of vomitus. Fundamentals of Nursing Prophylaxis is disease prevention. Fundamentals of Nursing Body alignment is achieved when the body parts are in proper relation to their natural position. Fundamentals of Nursing Trust is the foundation of a nurse-patient relationship. Fundamentals of Nursing Blood pressure in the force exerted by the circulating volume of blood on arterial walls. Fundamentals of Nursing Malpractice refers to the professional’s wrongful conduct, improper discharge of duties, or failure to meet standers of care, which causes harm to another. Fundamentals of Nursing As a general rule, nurses can’t refuse a patient care assignment; however, they may refuse to participate in abortions in most states. Fundamentals of Nursing A nurse can be found negligent if a patient is injured because the nurse failed to perform a duty that a reasonable and prudent person would perform or because the nurse performed an act that a reasonable and prudent person wouldn’t perform. Fundamentals of Nursing States have enacted Good Samaritan laws to encourage professionals to provide medical assistance at the scene of an accident without fear of a lawsuit arising from such assistance. These laws don’t apply to care provided in a health care facility. Fundamentals of Nursing A doctor should sign verbal and telephone orders within the time established by institutional policy, usually within 24 hours. Fundamentals of Nursing A competent adult has the right to refuse lifesaving medical treatment; however, the individual should be fully informed of the consequences of this refusal. Fundamentals of Nursing Although a patient’s health record or chart is the health care facility’s physical property, its contents belong to the patient. Fundamentals of Nursing Before a patient’s record can be released to a third party, the patient or patient’s legal guardian must give written consent. Fundamentals of Nursing Under the Controlled Substances Act, every dose of a controlled drug dispensed by the pharmacy must be counted for, whether the dose was administered to a particular patient or discarded accidentally. Fundamentals of Nursing A nurse can’t perform duties that violate a rule or regulation established by a state licensing board even if it is authorized by a health care facility or doctor. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should select a private room, preferably with a door that can be closed, to minimize interruptions during a patient interview. Fundamentals of Nursing In categorizing nursing diagnosis, the nurse should address actual life-threatening problems first, followed by potentially life-threatening concerns. Fundamentals of Nursing The major components of a nursing care plan are outcome criteria (patient goals) and nursing interventions. Fundamentals of Nursing Standing orders, or protocols, establish guidelines for treating a particular disease or set of symptoms. Fundamentals of Nursing In assessing a patient’s heart, the nurse normally finds the point of maximal impulse at the fifth intercostals space near the apex. Fundamentals of Nursing The S1 sound heard on auscultation is caused by closure of the mitral and tricuspid valves. Fundamentals of Nursing To maintain package sterility, the nurse should open the wrapper’s top flap away from the body, open side flap by touching only the outer part of the wrapper, and open the final flap by grasping the turned-down corner and pulling it toward the body. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse shouldn’t use a cotton-tipped applicator to dry a patient’s ear canal or remove wax because it may force cerumen against the tympanic membrane. Fundamentals of Nursing A patient’s identification bracelet should remain in place until the patient has been discharged from the health care facility and has left the premises. Fundamentals of Nursing The Controlled Substances Act designated five categories, or schedules, that classify controlled drugs according to their abuse liability. Fundamentals of Nursing Schedule I drugs, such as heroin, have a high abuse potential and have no currently accepted medical use in the United States. Fundamentals of Nursing Schedule II drugs, such as morphine, opium, and meperidine (Demerol), have a high abuse potential but have currently accepted medical uses. Their use may lead to physical or psychological dependence. Fundamentals of Nursing Schedule III drugs, such as paregoric and butabarbital (Butisol), have a lower abuse potential than Schedule I or II drugs. Abuse of Schedule III drugs may lead to moderate or low physical or psychological dependence, or both. Fundamentals of Nursing Schedule IV drugs, such as chloral hydrate, have a low abuse potential compared with Schedule III drugs. Fundamentals of Nursing Schedule V drugs, such as cough syrups that contain codeine, have the lowest abuse potential of the controlled substances. Fundamentals of Nursing Activities of daily living are actions that the patient must perform every day to provide self-care and interact with society. Fundamentals of Nursing Testing of the six cardinal fields of gaze evaluates the function of all extraocular muscles and cranial nerves III, IV, and VI. Fundamentals of Nursing The six types of heart murmurs are graded from 1 to 6. A grade 6 heart murmur can be heard with stethoscope slightly raised from the chest. Fundamentals of Nursing The most important goal to include in a care plan is the patient’s goal. Fundamentals of Nursing Fruits are high in fiber and low in protein and should be omitted from a low-residue diet. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should use an objective scale to assess and quantify pain because postoperative pain varies greatly among individuals. Fundamentals of Nursing Postmortem care includes cleaning and preparing the deceased patient for family viewing, arranging transportation to the morgue or funeral home, and determining the disposition of belongings. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should provide honest answers to the patient’s questions. Fundamentals of Nursing Milk shouldn’t be included in a clear liquid diet. Fundamentals of Nursing Consistency in nursing personnel is paramount when caring for a child, and infant, or a confused patient. Fundamentals of Nursing The hypothalamus secretes vasopressin and oxytocin, which are stored in the pituitary gland. Fundamentals of Nursing The three membranes that enclose that brain and spinal cord are the dura mater, pia mater, and arachnoid. Fundamentals of Nursing A nasogastric tube is used to remove fluid and gas from the small intestine preoperatively or postoperatively. Fundamentals of Nursing Psychologists, physical therapists, and chiropractors aren’t authorized to write prescriptions for medication. Fundamentals of Nursing The area around a stoma should be cleaned with mild soap and water. Fundamentals of Nursing Vegetables have a high fiber content. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should use a tuberculin syringe to administer an S.C. injection of less than 1 ml. Fundamentals of Nursing For adults, S.C. injections require a 25G 1" needle; for infants, children, elderly, or very thin patients, they require a 25G to 27G ½" needle. Fundamentals of Nursing Before administering medication, the nurse should identify the patient by checking the identification band and asking the patient to state his name. Fundamentals of Nursing To clean the skin before an injection, the nurse should use a sterile alcohol swab and wipe from the center of the site outward in a circular motion. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse always should inject heparin deep into S.C. tissue at a 90-degree angle (perpendicular to the skin) to prevent skin irritation. Fundamentals of Nursing If blood is aspirated into the syringe before an I.M. injection, the nurse should withdraw the needle, prepare another syringe, and repeat the procedure. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse shouldn’t cut the patient’s hair without written consent from the patient or an appropriate relative. Fundamentals of Nursing If bleeding occurs after an injection, the nurse should apply pressure until the bleeding stops; if bruising occurs, the nurse should monitor the site for an enlarging hematoma. Fundamentals of Nursing When providing hair and scalp care, the nurse should begin combing at the end of the hair and work toward the head. Fundamentals of Nursing Frequency of patient hair care depends on the length and texture of the hair, duration of hospitalization, and patient’s condition. Fundamentals of Nursing Proper hearing aid function requires careful handling during insertion and removal, regular cleaning of the ear piece to prevent wax buildup, and prompt replacement of dead batteries. Fundamentals of Nursing The hearing aid marked with a blue dot is for the left ear; the one with the red dot is for the right ear. Fundamentals of Nursing A hearing aid shouldn’t be exposed to heat or humidity and shouldn’t be immersed in water. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should instruct a patient not to use hair spray while wearing a hearing aid. Fundamentals of Nursing The five branches of pharmacology are pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, pharmacotherapeutics, toxicology, and pharmacognosy. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should remove heel protectors every 8 hours to inspect the foot for signs of skin breakdown. Fundamentals of Nursing The purpose of heat application is to promote vasodilation, which reduces pain caused by inflammation. Fundamentals of Nursing A sutured surgical incision is an example of healing by first intention (healing directly, without granulation). Fundamentals of Nursing Healing by secondary intention (healing by granulation) is closure of the wound by the granulation tissue filling the defect and allowing reepithelialization to occur, beginning at the wound edges and continuing to the center, until the entire wound is covered. Fundamentals of Nursing Keloid formation is an abnormality in healing characterized by overgrowth of scar tissue at the wound site. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should administer procaine penicillin by deep I.M. injection in the upper outer portion of the buttocks in the adult or in the midlateral thigh in the child. The nurse shouldn’t massage the injection site. Fundamentals of Nursing The ascending colostomy drains fluid feces; the descending colostomy drains solid fecal matter. Fundamentals of Nursing A folded towel (called a scrotal bridge) can provide scrotal support for the patient with scrotal edema caused by vasectomy, epididymitis, or orchitis. Fundamentals of Nursing When giving an injection to the patient with a bleeding disorder, the nurse should use a small-gauge needle and apply pressure to the site for 5 minutes after the injection. Fundamentals of Nursing Platelets are the smallest and most fragile formed element of the blood and are essential for coagulation. Fundamentals of Nursing To insert a nasogastric tube, the nurse should first instruct the patient to tilt the head back slightly and then insert the tube. When the tube is felt curving at the pharynx, the nurse should tell the patient to tilt the head forward to close the trachea and open the esophagus by swallowing. (Sips of water can facilitate this action.) Fundamentals of Nursing According to families whose loved ones are in intensive care units, their four most important needs are to have questions answered honestly, to be assured that the best possible car is being provided, to know the prognosis, and to feel there is hope. Fundamentals of Nursing A double-bind communication when the verbal message contradicts the nonverbal message and the receiver is unsure of which message to respond to. Fundamentals of Nursing A nonjudgmental attitude displayed by the nurse demonstrates that she neither approves nor disapproves of the patient. Fundamentals of Nursing Target symptoms are those that the patient and others find most distressing. Fundamentals of Nursing Advise the patient to take aspirin on an empty stomach with a full glass of water and to avoid foods with acid such as coffee, citrus fruits, and cola. Fundamentals of Nursing For every patient problem, there is a nursing diagnosis; for every nursing diagnosis, there is a goal; and for every goal, there are interventions designed to make the goal a reality. The keys to answering examination questions correctly are identifying the problem presented, formulating a goal for that specific problem, and then selecting the intervention from the choices provided that will enable the patient to reach that goal. Fundamentals of Nursing Fidelity means loyalty and can be shown as a commitment to the profession of nursing and to the patient. Fundamentals of Nursing Giving an I.M. injection against the patient’s will and without legal authority is battery. Fundamentals of Nursing An example of a third-party payor is an insurance company. Fundamentals of Nursing On-call medication should be given within 5 minutes of receipt of the call. Fundamentals of Nursing Generally, the best method to determine the cultural or spiritual needs of the patient is to ask him. Fundamentals of Nursing An incident report shouldn’t be made part of the patient’s record but is an in-house document for the purpose of correcting the problem. Fundamentals of Nursing Critical pathways are a multidisciplinary guideline for patient care. Fundamentals of Nursing When prioritizing nursing diagnoses, use this hierarchy: (1) problems associated with airway, (2) those concerning breathing, and (3) those related to circulation. Fundamentals of Nursing The two nursing diagnoses with the highest priority that the nurse can assign are Ineffective airway clearance and Ineffective breathing pattern. Fundamentals of Nursing A subjective sign that a sitz bath has been effective is that patient expresses a decrease in pain or discomfort. Fundamentals of Nursing For the nursing diagnosis Diversional activity deficit to be valid, the patient must make the statement that he’s “bored, there is nothing to do” or words to that effect. Fundamentals of Nursing The most appropriate nursing diagnosis for an individual who doesn’t speak English is Communication, impaired, related to inability to speak dominant language (English). Fundamentals of Nursing The family of the patient who has been diagnosed as hearing impaired should be instructed to face the individual when they speak to him. Fundamentals of Nursing Up to age 3, the pinna should be pulled down and back to straighten the eustachian tube before instilling medication. Fundamentals of Nursing When administering eyedrops, the nurse should waste the first drop and instill the medication in the lower conjunctival sac to prevent injury to the cornea. Fundamentals of Nursing When administering eye ointment, the nurse should waste the first bead of medication and then apply the medication from the inner to the outer canthus. Fundamentals of Nursing When removing gloves and mask, the gloves, which most likely contain pathogens and are soiled, should be removed first. Fundamentals of Nursing Crutches should placed 6" (15 cm) in front of the patient and 6" to the side to assume a tripod position. Fundamentals of Nursing Listening is the most effective communication technique. Fundamentals of Nursing Process recording is a method of evaluating one’s communication effectiveness. Fundamentals of Nursing When feeding the elderly, limit high-carbohydrate foods because of the risk of glucose intolerance. Fundamentals of Nursing Passive range of motion maintains joint mobility whereas resistive exercises increase muscle mass. Fundamentals of Nursing Isometric exercises are performed on an extremity in a cast. Fundamentals of Nursing A back rub is an example of the gate-control theory of pain. Fundamentals of Nursing Anything below the waist is considered unsterile, a sterile field becomes unsterile when it comes in contact with nay unsterile item, a sterile field must be continuously monitored, and the 1" (2.5 cm) border around a sterile field is considered unsterile. Fundamentals of Nursing A “shift to the left” is evident when there is an increase in immature cells (bands) in the blood to fight an infection. Fundamentals of Nursing A “shift to the right” is evident when there is an increase in mature cells in the blood as seen in advanced liver diseases and pernicious anemia. Fundamentals of Nursing Before administering preoperative medication, make sure that an informed consent form has been signed and attached to the patient’s record. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should spend no more than 30 minutes per 8-hour shift in providing care to the patient with a radiation implant. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should stand near the patient’s shoulders for cervical implants and at the foot of the bed for head and neck implants. Fundamentals of Nursing The nurse should never be assigned to care for more than one patient with radiation implants. Fundamentals of Nursing Long-handled forceps and a lead-lined container should be in the room of the patient who has a radiation implant. Fundamentals of Nursing Generally, patients who have the same infection and are in strict isolation can share the same room. Fundamentals of Nursing Diseases requiring strict isolation include chickenpox, diphtheria, and viral hemorrhagic fever such as Marburg virus disease. Fundamentals of Nursing For the patient abiding by Jewish custom, milk and meat shouldn’t be served in the same meal. Fundamentals of Nursing Whether the patient can perform a procedure (psychomotor domain of learning) is a better indicator of the effectiveness of patient teaching than whether the patient can simply state the steps of the procedure (cognitive domain of learning). Fundamentals of Nursing Developmental stages according to Erik Erikson are trust versus mistrust (birth to 18 months), autonomy versus shame and doubt (18 months to 3 years), initiative versus guilt (3 to 5 years), industry versus inferiority (5 to 12 years), identity versus identity diffusion (12 to 18 years), intimacy versus isolation (18 to 25 years), generativity versus stagnation (25 to 60 years), and ego integrity versus despair (older than 60 years). Fundamentals of Nursing Face the hearing impaired patient when communicating with him. Fundamentals of Nursing A proper nursing intervention for the spouse of the patient who has suffered a serious incapacitating disease is to assist him in mobilizing a support system. Fundamentals of Nursing Hyperpyrexia refers to extreme elevation in temperature above 106º F (41.1º C). Fundamentals of Nursing

VI. Normal Adaptation in Pregnancy


A. Systemic Changes
1. Circulatory/Cardiovascular
a. Beginning the end of the first trimester, there is gradual increase of about 30%-50% in total cardiac volume, reaching its peak during the 6th month. This causes a drop in hemoglobin and hematocrit values since the increase is only in the plasma volume=physiologic anemia of pregnancy. Consequences of increased total cardiac volume are:
 Easy fatigability and shortness of breath because of increased workload of the heart
 Slight hypertrophy of the heart, causing it to be displaced to the left, resulting in torsion on the great vessels (the aorta and pulmonary artery)
 Systolic murmurs are common due to lowered blood viscosity
 Nosebleeds may occur because of marked congestion of the nasopharynx as pregnancy progresses
b. Palpitations due to:
 Sympathetic nervous system stimulation during first half of pregnancy
 Increased pressure of uterus against the diaphragm during 2nd half of pregnancy
c. Because of poor circulation resulting from pressure of the gravid uterus on the blood vessels of the lower extremities:
 Edema of the lower extremities occurs.
Management: raise legs above hip level
Important: Edema of the lower extremities is NOT a sign of toxemia.
 Varicosities of the lower extremities can also occur. Management:
• Use/wear support hose or elastic stocking to promote venous flow, thus preventive stasis in the lower extremities
• Apply elastic bandage – start at the distal end of the extremity and work toward the trunk to avoid congestion and impaired circulation in the distal part; do not wrap toes so as to be able to determine the adequacy of circulation (Principle behind bandaging: blood flow thru tissues is decreased by applying excessive pressure on blood vessels)
• Avoid use of constricting garters, e.g., knee-high socks
d. Because of poor circulation in the blood vessels of the genitalia due to pressure of the gravid uterus, varicosities of the vulva and rectum can occur. Management:
 Side-lying position with hips elevated on pillows
 Advise modified knee-chest position
e. There is increased level of circulating fibrinogen, that is why pregnant women are normally safeguarded against undue bleeding. However, this also predisposes them to formation of blood clots (thrombi). The implication is that pregnant women should not be massaged since blood clots can be released an cause thromboembolism.

2. Gastrointestinal changes
a. Morning sickness (-nausea and vomiting during the first trimester) is due to increased human chorionic genadotropin (HCC). It may also be due to increased acidity or even to emotional factors. Management:
 Eat dry toast or crackers 30 minutes before arising in the morning (or dry, high carbohydrate, low fat and low spices in the diet).
Hyperemesis gravidarum – excessive nausea and vomiting which persists beyond 3 months; will result in dehydration, starvation and acidosis. Management
• D10 NSS 3000 ml in 24 hours is the priority of treatment
• Complete bed rest is also an important
b. Constipation and flatulence are due to the displacement of the stomach and intestines, thus slowing peristalsis and gastric-emptying time; may also be due to increased progesterone during pregnancy. Management:
 Increase fluids and roughage in the diet
 Establish regular elimination time
 Increase exercise
 Avoid enemas
 Avoid harsh laxatives like Dulcolax; stool softeners, e.g. Colace, are better
 Mineral oil should not be taken because it interferes with absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
c. Hemorrhoids are due to pressure of enlarged uterus. Management:
 Cold compress with witch hazel or Epsom salts.
d. Heartburn, especially during the last trimester, is due to increased progesterone which decreases gastric motility, thereby causing reverse peristaltic waves which lead to regurgitation of stomach contents through the cardiac sphincter into the esophagus, causing irritation.
Management:
 Pats of butter before meals
 Avoid fried, fatty foods
 Sips of milk at frequent intervals
 Small, frequent meals taken slowly
 Bend at the knees, not at the waist
 Take antacids (e.g. Milk of Magnesia) but NEVER sodium bicarbonate (e.g. Alka Seltzer or baking soda) because it promotes fluid retention.

3. Respiratory changes – there is shortness of breath
a. Causes
 Increased oxygen consumption and production of carbon dioxide during the first trimester
 Increased uterine size causes diaphragm to be pushed or displaced, thus crowding chest cavity
b. Management: Lateral expansion of the chest to compensate for shortness of breath increases oxygen supply and vital lung capacity.
4. Urinary changes
a. Urinary frequency, the only sign in pregnancy seen during the first trimester, disappear during the second and reappear during the third trimester, is due to increased blood supply in the kidneys and to the uterus rising out of the pelvic cavity; on the last trimester, is due to pressure of enlarged uterus on the bladder, especially with lightening.
b. Decreased renal threshold for sugar due to increased production of glucocorticoids which cause lactose and dextrose to spill into the urine; also an effect of the increase in progesterone. (Implication: It would be difficult to diagnose diabetes in pregnancy based on the urine sample alone because all pregnant women have sugar in their urine)

5. Musculoskeletal changes
a. Because of the pregnant woman’s attempt to change her center of gravity, she makes ambulation easier by standing more straight and taller, resulting in a lordotic position (“pride of pregnancy”)
b. Due to increased production of the hormone relaxin, pelvic bones become more supple and movable, increasing the incidence of accidental falls due to the wobbly gait.
Implication: Advise use of low-heeled shoes after the first trimester.
c. Leg cramps are caused by:
 Increased pressure of gravid uterus on lower extremities
 Fatigue
 Chills
 Muscle tenseness
 Low calcium high phosphorus intake
Management:
 Frequent rest periods with feet elevated
 Wear warm, more comfortable clothing
 Increase calcium intake (calcium tablets and diet)
 Do not massage – blood clots can cause embolism
 Most effective relief: Press knee of the affected leg and dorsiflex the foot

6. Temperature – slight increase in body temperature due to increased progesterone, but the body adapts after the 4th month

7. Endocrine changes
a. Addition of the placenta as an endocrine organ, producing large amounts of estrogen, progesterone, HCG and HPL
b. Moderate enlargement of the thyroid gland due to hyperplasia of the glandular tissues and increased vascularity. Could also be due to increased basal metabolic activity of the products of conception.
c. Increased size of the parathyroids, probably to satisfy the increased need of the fetus for calcium
d. Increased size and activity of the adrenal cortex, thus increasing the amount of circulating cortisol, aldosterone and ADH, all of which affect carbohydrate and fat metabolism
e. Gradual increase in insulin production but the body’s sensitivity to insulin is decreased during pregnancy

8. Weight
a. During first trimester, weight gain of 1.5 – 3 lbs
b. On 2nd trimester and 3rd trimesters, weight gain of 10-11 pounds per trimester is recommended
c. Total allowable weight gain during entire period of pregnancy is 20 - 25 lbs ( = 10 – 12 kgs)
d. Pattern of weight gain is more important than the amount of weight gained
e. Distribution of weight gain during pregnancy:
Fetus 7 lbs
Placenta 1 lb
Amniotic fluid 1 ½ lbs
Increased weight of uterus 2 lbs
Increased blood volume 1 lb
Increased weight of the breast 1 ½ - 3 lbs
Weight of additional fluid 2 lbs
Fat fluid accumulation 4 – 6 lbs
Characteristic of pregnancy _________

TOTAL = 20 – 25 lbs

9. Emotional responses
a. First trimester: the fetus is an unidentified concept with great future implications but without tangible evidence of reality. Some degree of rejection, denial and disbelief, even repression. (Implication: when giving health teachings, be sure to emphasize the bodily changes in pregnancy)
b. Second trimester: fetus is perceived as a separate entity. Fantasizes appearance of the baby
c. Third trimester: has personal identification with a real baby about to be born and realistic plans for future child care responsibilities. Best time to talk about preparation of layette and infant feeding method. Fear of death, though, is prominent (To allay fears, let pregnant woman listen to the fetal heart tones).

B. Local Changes
1. Uterus
a. Weight in crease to about 1,000 grams at full term; due to increase in the amount of fibrous and elastic tissues.
b. Change in shape from pear-like to ovoid
c. Change in consistency of the lower uterine segment causes extreme softening, known as Hegar’s sign, seen at about the 6th week
d. Mucous plugs in the cervix, called operculum, are produced to seal out bacteria
e. Cervix becomes more vascular and edematous, resembling the consistency of an earlobe, known as Goodell’s sign.

2. Vagina
a. Increased vascularity causes change in color from light pink to deep purple or violet known as Chadwick’s sign
 To prevent confusion as to pregnancy signs arrange the body “out to xxx” and the different signs alphabetically. Thus:
Vagina - Chadwick’s sign
Cervix - Goodell’s sign
Uterus - Hegar’s sign
b. Due to increase estrogen, activity of the epithelial cells increases, thus increasing amount of vaginal discharges called leukorrhea. As long as the discharges are not smelling or irritatingly itchy, it is normal. Management: Maintain or increase cleanliness by taking twice daily shower baths using cool water.
c. pH of vagina changes from the normally acidic (because of the presence of the Doderlein bacilli) to alkaline (because of increased estrogen). Alkaline vaginal environment is supposed to protect against bacterial infection, however, there are two microorganisms which love to thrive in an alkaline environment:
 Trichomonas, a protozoa or flagellate. The condition is called trichomonas vaginalis or trichomonas vaginitis or trichomoniasis. Symptoms are:
 Frothy, cream-colored, irritatingly itchy, foul-smelling discharges
 Vulvar edema and hyperemia due to irritation from the discharges
Treatment:
 Flagyl for 10 days p.o. or vaginal suppositories of Trichomonicidal compounds (e.g., Tricefuron, Vagisec, Devegan). Note: Is carcinogenic during the first trimester. Treat male partner also, with Flagyl. (Important: avoid alcoholic drinks when taking Flagyl – can cause Antabuse-like reactions: vomiting, flushed face and abdominal cramps.) Dark brown urine a minor side effect-no need to discontinue the drug.
 Acidic vaginal douche (1 tbsp. white vinegar to 1 quart of water or 15 ml white vinegar in 1000 ml water) to counteract alkaline-preferred environment of the protozoa.
 Avoid intercourse to prevent re-infection.
 Monilia, a fungus called Candida albicans. The condition is called Moniliasis or Candidiasis. Fungus also lives to thrive in environment right in carbohydrates (that is why it is common among poorly-controlled diabetics) and in those on steroid and antibiotic therapy when acidic environment is altered.
Symptoms:
 White, patchy, cheese-like particles that adhere to vaginal walls. Irritatingly itchy and foul-smelling vaginal discharges
Treatment:
 Mycostatin/Nystatin p.o. or vaginal suppositories/pessaries (100,000 U) twice a day for 15 days
 Gentian violet swab to vagina (use panty shields to prevent staining of clothes or underwear)
 Correct diabetes
 Avoid intercourse
 Acidic vaginal douche
Moniliasis is seen as oral thrush in the newborn when transmitted during delivery through the birth canal of the infected mother.

3. Abdominal Wall
a. Striae gravidarum – increased uterine size results in rupture and atrophy of the connective tissue layers, seen as pink or reddish streaks (gently rubbing oil on the skin helps prevent diastasis)
b. Umbilicus pushed out

4. Skin
a. Linea nigra – brown line running from umbilicus to symphysis pubis
b. Melasma or chloasma – extra pigmentation on cheeks and across the nose due to the increased production of melanocytes by the pituitary gland
c. Sweat glands unduly activated


5. Breasts
a. All changes due to increased estrogen
b. Increase in size due to hyperplasia of mammary alveoli and fat deposits. Proper breast support with well-fitting brassiere necessary to prevent sagging
c. Feeling of fullness and tingling sensation in the breasts
d. Nipples more erect (For mothers who intend to breastfeed, advise nipple rolling, drying nipples with rough towel to help toughen the nipples and not to use soap or alcohol so as to prevent drying which could lead to sore nipples).
e. Montgomery glands become bigger and more protruberant
f. Areolae become darker and diameter increase
g. Skin surrounding areolas turns dark
h. By the fourth month, a thin, watery, high-protein fluid, called colostrums, is formed. It is the precursor of breast milk.

6. Ovaries – no activity whatsoever, since ovulation does not take place during pregnancy and progesterone and estrogen are being produced by the placenta.


Table 2. Signs Of Pregnancy

STAGE

PRESUMPTIVE

PROBABLE

POSITIVE

First Trimester

Amenorrhea

Morning sickness

Breast changes

Fatigue

Urinary frequency

Enlarging uterus

Chadwick’s

Goodell’s

Hegar’s

Positive HCG

Elevation of basal body temperature

Ultrasound evidence

Second Trimester

Quickening

Increased skin pigmentation:

Chloasma

Linea nigra

Striae gravidarum

Enlarged abdomen

Braxton Hicks

Ballotement

Fetal heart tones

Fetal movements

Fetal outline on

X-ray
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V. Focus of Fetal Development


A. First trimester - organogenesis
B. Second trimester – period of continued fetal growth and development; rapid increase in fetal length
C. Third trimester – period of most rapid growth and development because of rapid deposition of subcutaneous fat
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IV. Fetal Development




A. First Lunar Month
1. Germ layers differentiate by the 2nd week (In cases of multiple congenital anomalies, the structures that will be affected are those that arise out of the same germ layer.)
a. Entoderm – develops into the lining of the GIT, the respiratory tract, tonsils, thyroid (for basal metabolism), parathyroid (for calcium metabolism), thymus glands (for development of immunity), bladder and urethra
b. Mesoderm – forms into the supporting structures of the body (connective tissues, bones, cartilage, muscles and tendons), heart, circulatory system, blood cells, reproductive system, kidneys and ureters
c. Ectoderm – responsible for the formation of the nervous system, the skin, hair and nails, the sense organs and mucous membrane of the anus and mouth.
2. Fetal membranes (amnion and chorion) appear by the second week
3. Nervous system very rapidly develops by the 3rd week (Dizziness is said to be the earliest sign of pregnancy because as the fetal brain rapidly develops, glucose stores of the mother are depleted, thus causing hypoglycemia in the latter)
4. Fetal heart begins to form as early as the 16th day of life (To the question, “When does the fetal heart begin to beat?”, the answer is the first lunar month. But to the question “When can fetal heart tones be first heard?”, the answer is fifth month.)
5. The digestive and respiratory tracts exist as a single tube until the 3rd week of life when they start to separate.
B. Second Lunar Month
1. All vital organs are formed by the end of the 8th week.
2. Placenta develops fully.
3. Sex organs (ovaries and testes) are formed by the 8th week. (To the question, “When is sex determined?”, the answer is at the time of conception.)
4. Meconium (first stools) are formed in the intestines by the 5th-8th week.
C. Third Lunar Month
1. Kidneys are able to function – urine formed by the 12th week
2. Buds of milk teeth form
3. Beginning bone ossification
4. Fetus swallows amniotic fluid
5. Feto-placental circulation is established by selective osmosis; no direct exchange between fetal and maternal blood
D. Fourth Lunar Month
1. Lanugo appears
2. Buds of permanent teeth form
3. Hearth beats audible with fetoscope
E. Fifth Lunar Month
1. Vernix caseosa appears
2. Lanugo covers entire body
3. Quickening (fetal movements) felt
4. Fetal heart beats very audible
F. Sixth Lunar Month
1. Skin markedly wrinkled
2. Attains proportions of full term baby
G. Seventh Lunar Month
1. Alveoli begin to form (28th weeks gestation is said to be the lower limit
of prematurity; if born, cries, breathes, but usually dies)
H. Eighth Lunar Month
1. Fetus is viable
2. Lanugo begins to disappear
3. Nails extend to ends of fingers
4. Subcutaneous fat deposition begins
I. Night Lunar Month
1. Lanugo and vernix disappear
2. Amniotic fluid volume somewhat decreases
J. Tenth Lunar Month – all characteristics of the normal newborn
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III. Implantation





Immediately after fertilization, the fertilized ovum or zygote stays in the Fallopian tube for 3 days, during which time rapid cell division (mitosis) is taking place. The developing cells are now called blastomere and when there are already 16 blastomeres, it is now terms a morula. In this morula form, it will start to travel (by ciliary action and peristaltic contractions of the Fallopian tube) to the uterus where it will stay for another 3-4 days. When there is already a cavity formed in the morula, it is now called blastocyst. Fingerlike projections, called trophoblasts, form around the blastocyst and these trophoblast are the once which will implant high on trophoblasts or posterior surface of the uterus. Thus, implantation, also called nidation, takes place about a week after fertilization.

General Consideration:
A. Once implantation has taken place, the uterine endothelium is now termed decidua
B. Occasionally, a small amount of vaginal spotting appears with implantation because capillaries are ruptured by the implanting throphoblasts = implantation bleeding. Implication: this should not be mistaken for the Last Menstrual Period (LMP).

Table 1. Outline of Trophoblast Differentiation

I. Cytotrophoblast – the inner layer
II. Syncytiotrophoblast – the outer layer containing fingerlike projections called chorionic villi:
A. Langhan’s layer – believed to protect the fetus against Treponema Pallidum (etiologic agent of syphilis). Present only during the second trimester of pregnancy.
B. Syncytial layer – gives rise to the fetal membranes:
1. Amnion – inner layer which gives rise to:
a. Umbilical cord/funis – contains 2 arteries and one vein, which are supported by the Wharton’s jelly
b. Amniotic fluid – clear, albuminous fluid in which the baby floats. Begins to form at 11-15 weeks gestation. Approximates water in specific gravity (1.007-1.025) and is neutral to slightly alkaline (pH=7.0-7.25. Note: the higher the pH, the more alkaline; the lower the pH, the more acidic). Near term, is clear, colorless, containing little white specks of vernix caseosa and other solid particles. Produced at a rate of 500 ml in 24 hours and fetus swallows it at an equally rapid rate. By the 4th lunar month, urine is added to the amount of amniotic fluid. It is, therefore, derived chiefly from maternal serum and fetal urine. (Implication: a case of polyhydramnios = more than 1500 ml of aminiotic fluid, stems from inability of the fetus to swallow amniotic rapidly, as in Tracheoesophageal fistuli; while oligo-hydramnios = amniotic fluid less than 500 ml, results when kidneys are not functioning normally, as in congenital renal anomaly.) Also know as bag of waters (BOW), it serves the following purposes:
• Protection:
* Shields the fetus against blows or pressure on the mother’s abdomen
* Protects the fetus against sudden change sin temperature because liquid changes temperature more slowly than air
* Protects the fetus against certain infections
• Diagnosis:
* As in amniocentesis
* Meconium-stained amniotic fluid means fetal distress
• Aids in descent of the fetus during active labor

2. Chorion – together with the deciduas basalis gives rise to the placenta, which starts to form on the 8th week of gestation. Develops into 15-20 subdivision called cotyledons. Placenta serves the following purposes:
a. Respiratory system – exchange of gases takes place in the placenta, not in the fetal lungs
b. Renal system – waste products are being excreted through the placenta (Note: it is the mother’s liver which detoxifies the fetal waste products).
c. Gastrointestinal system – nutrients pass to the fetus via the placenta by diffusion through the placental tissues.
d. Circulatory system – feto-placental circulation is established by selective osmosis
e. Endocrine system – it produces the following hormones (before 8 weeks gestation, the corpus luteum is the one producing these hormones):
 Human chronionic gonadotropin (HCG) – “order’s the corpus luteum to keep on producing estrogen and progesterone that is why menstruation does not ta ke place during pregnancy. It is also the basis for pregnancy test.
 Human placental lactogen (HPL)/human chronionic somatomammotropin – promotes growth of the mammary glands necessary for lactation. Also has growth-stimulating properties
 Estrogen
 Progesterone
f. Protective barrier – inhibit passage of some bacteria and large molecules.

3. Stage of human prenatal development:
a. First 12-14 days = zygote
b. From 15th day up to the 8th week = embryo
c. From 8th week up to the time of birth = fetus
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II. Fertilization





A. Definition: the union of the sperm and the mature ovum in the outer third or outer half of the Fallopian tube.

B. General considerations:
1. Normal amount of semen per ejaculation = 3 – 5 cc = 1 teaspoon
2. Number of sperms in an ejaculate = 120 – 150 million/cc
3. Mature ovum is capable of being fertilized for 12-24 hours after ovulation. Sperms are capable of fertilizing even for 3-4 days after ejaculation
4. Normal life span of sperms = 7 days
5. Sperms, once deposited in the vagina, will generally reach the cervix within 90 seconds after deposition.
6. Reproductive cells, during gametogenosis, divide by meiosis (haploid number of daughter cells); therefore, they contain only 23 chromosomes (the rest of the body cells have 46 chromosomes). Sperms have 22 autosomes and 1 X sex chromosome or 1 Y sex chromosome; ova contain 22 autosomes and 1 X sex chromosome. The union of an X-carrying sperm and a mature ovum results in a baby girl (XX); the union of a Y-carrying sperm and a mature ovum results in a baby boy (XY). Important: Only fathers determine the sex of their children


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I. Obstetric Terms in Statistical Data

A. Birth rate – the number of births per 1,000 population
B. Fetal death rate – the number of total deaths per 1,000 births. (both live births and stillbirths)
C. Perinatal mortality rate – the number of deaths occurring between 28 weeks gestation until 6 days after birth
D. Neonatal mortality rate – the number of neonatal (first 28 days of life) deaths per 1,000 live births
E. Infant mortality rate – the number of infant (first 12 months of life) deaths per 1,000 live births
F. Maternal mortality rate – the number of deaths that occur as the direct result of the reproductive process per 10,000 live births
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IV. Feedback Mechanism of Menstruation




A. General Considerations
1. 300,000 – 400,000 immature oocytes per ovary are present at birth (ware formed during the first 5 months of intrauterine life); many, however, degenerate and atrophy (process called atresia). About 300 – 400 mature during the entire reproductive cycle of women.
2. Ushered in by the menarche, (first menstruation in girls) and ends with menopause (permanent cessation of menstruation; no more functioning oocytes in the ovaries). Age of onset and termination vary widely, depending on heredity, racial background, nutrition and climate.
3. Normal period (days when there is menstrual flow) lasts for 3-6 days; menstrual cycle (from first day of menstrual period to first day of next menstrual period) maybe anywhere from 25-35 days, but accepted average length in 28 days.
4. Anovulatory states after menarche not unusual because of immaturity of feedback mechanism (anovulatory states occur also in pregnancy, lactation and related disease conditions).
5. Associated terms:
a. Amenorrhea – temporary cessation of menstrual flow
b. Oligomenorrhea – markedly diminished menstrual flow, nearing amenorrhea
c. Menorrhagia – excessive bleeding during regular menstruation
d. Metrorrhagia – bleeding at completely irregular intervals
e. Polymenorrhea – frequent menstruation occurring at intervals of less than three weeks
6. Body structures involved:
a. Hypothalamus
b. Anterior pituitary gland
c. Ovary
d. Uterus
7. Hormones which regulate cyclic activities:
a. Follicle-stimulation hormone (FSH)
b. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
8. Effects of estrogen in the body:
a. Inhibits production of FSH
b. Causes hypertrophy of the endometrium
c. Stimulates growth of the ductile structures of the breasts
d. Increases quantity and pH of cervical mucus, causing it to become thin and watery and can be stretched to a distance of 10-13 cm. (Spinnbarkeit test of ovulation)
9. Effects of progesterone in the body:
a. Inhibits production of LH
b. Increases endometrial tortuosity
c. Increases endometrial secretions
d. Inhibits uterine motility
e. Decreases muscle tone of gastrointestinal and urinary tracts
f. Increases musculoskeletal motility
g. Facilitates transport of the fertilized ovum through the Fallopian tubes
h. Decreases renal threshold for lactose and dextrose
i. Increases fibrinogen levels; decreases hemoglobin and hematocrit
j. Increases body temperature after ovulation. Just before ovulation, basal body temperature decreases slightly (because of low progesterone level in the blood) and then increases slightly a day after ovulation (because of the presence of progesterone).

B. Sequential Steps in the Menstrual Cycle
1. On the third day of the menstrual cycle, serum estrogen level is at its lowest. This low estrogen level serves as the stimulus for the hypothalamus to produce the Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Releasing Factor (FSHRF).
2. FSHRF is responsible for stimulating the Anterior Pituitary Gland (APG) to produce the first of 2 hormones which regulate cyclic activities, the Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH).
3. FSH, in turn, will stimulate the growth of an immature oocyte inside a primordial follicle by stimulating production of estrogen by the ovary. Once estrogen is produced, the primordial follicle is not termed Graafian follicle (The Graafian follicle, therefore, is the structure which contains high amounts of estrogen).
4. Estrogen in the Graafian follicle will cause the cells in the uterine endothelium to proliferate (grew very rapidly), thereby increasing its thickness to about eightfold. This particular phase in the uterine cycle, therefore, is called proliferative phase. In view of the change from primordial to Graafian follicle, it is also called the follicular phase. Because of the predominance of estrogen, it is also called the estrogenic phase. And since it comes right after the menstrual period, it is also called postmenstrual phase. And, it is also called the pre-ovulatory phase.
5. On the 13th day of the menstrual cycle, there is now a very low level of progesterone in the blood. This low serum progesterone level is then the stimulus for the Hypothalamus to produce the Luteinizing Hormone Releasing Factor (LHRF).
6. LHRF is responsible for stimulating the APG to produce the second hormone which regulates cyclic activity, the Luteinizing Hormone (LH).
7. LH, in turn, is responsible for stimulating the ovary to produce the second hormone produced by the ovaries, progesterone.
8. The increased amounts of both estrogen and progesterone pushes the now mature ovum to the surface of the ovary until, on the following day (the 14th day of the menstrual cycle), the Graafian follicle ruptures and releases the mature ovum, a process called ovulation.
9. Once ovulation is taken place, the Graafian follicle, because it now contains increasing amounts of progesterone is the Corpus Luteum.
10. Progesterone causes the glands of the uterine endothelium to become corkscrew or twisted in appearance because of the increasing amount of capillaries. Progesterone, therefore, is said to be the hormone designed to promote pregnancy because it makes the uterus nutritionally abundant with blood in order for the fertilize zygote to survive should conception take place. That is why this phase in the uterine cycle is what we call progestational phase. This phase in the uterine cycle is also called the secretory phase because it secretes the most important hormone in pregnancy. In view of the change from Graafian follicle, to Corpus Luteum, it is also called the luteal phase. Because it occurs just after ovulation, it is also called the post-ovulatory phase. And, it is also called the pre-menstrual phase.
11. Up until the 24th day of the menstrual cycle, if the mature ovum is not fertilized by a sperm, the amounts of hormones in the Corpus Luteum will start to decrease. The Corpus Luteum, turning white, is now called the corpus albicans and after 3-4 days, the thickened lining of the uterus produced by estrogen starts to degenerate and slough off and the capillaries rupture. And thus begins another menstrual period.

C. Additional Information
1. When the ovary releases the mature ovum on the day of ovulation, sometimes a certain degree of pain in either the right or left lower quadrant is felt by the woman. This sensation is normal and is termed mittelschmerz.
2. The first 14 days of the menstrual cycle is a very variable period. The last 14 days of the menstrual cycle is a fixed period exactly 2 weeks after ovulation, menstruation will occur (unless a pregnancy has taken place) because the corpus luteum has a life span of only 2 weeks. Implication: when given options regarding the exact date of ovulation, choose two weeks before menstruation.
3. In a 28-day cycle, ovulation takes place on the 14th day. In a 32-day cycle, ovulation takes place on the 18th day. In a 26-day cycle, ovulation takes place or the 12th day (Subtract 14 days from the cycle).
4. Menstruation can occur even without ovulation (as in women taking oral contraceptives). Ovulation can likewise occur even without menstruation (as in lactating mothers
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III. The Pelvis





- although not a part of the Female Reproductive Organs but of the skeletal system, is a very important body part of pregnant women.

A. Structure
1. 2 Os Coxae/Innominate bones – made up of:
a. Ilium – upper, extended part; curved upper border is the iliac crest.
b. Ischium – under part; when sitting, the body rests on the ischial tuberosities; ischial spines are important landmarks.
c. Pubes – front part; join to form an articulation of the pelvis called the symphysis pubis.
2. Sacrum – wedge-shaped, form the back part of the pelvis. Consists of 5 fused vertebrae, the first having a prominent under margin called the sacral promontory. Articulates with the ilium, the sacroiliac joint.
3. Coccyx – lowest part of the spine; degree of movement between sacrum and coccyx, made possible by the third articulation of the pelvis called sacrococcygeal joint which allows room for delivery of the fetal head.

B. Divisions – set apart by the linea terminalis, (pelvic brim, ileopectineal line) and imaginary line from the sacral promontory to the ilia on both side to the superior portion of the symphysis pubic.
1. False pelvis – superior half formed by the ilia. Offers landmarks for pelvic measurements; supports the growing uterus during pregnancy; and directs the fetus into the true pelvis near the end of gestation.
2. True pelvis – inferior half formed by the pubis in front, the ilia and the ischia on the sides and the sacrum and coccyx behind. Made up of three parts:
a. Inlet – entranceway to the true pelvis. Its transverse diameter is wider than its anteroposterior diameter. Thus:
Transverse diameter = 13.5 cm
Anteroposterior diameter = 11 cm
Right and left oblique diameters = 12.75 cm
b. Cavity – space between the inlet and outlet
c. Outlet – inferior portion of the pelvis bounded in the back by the coccyx, on the sides by the ischial tuberosities and in front by the inferior aspect of the symphysis pubis and the pubic arch. Its anteroposterior (AP) diameter is wider than its transverse diameter.

C. Types/Variations
1. Gynecoid – “normal female pelvis. Inlet is well rounded forward and back. Most ideal for childbirth.
2. Anthropoid – transverse diameter is narrow, AP diameter is larger than normal.
3. Platypelloid – inlet is oval, AP diameter is shallow
4. Android – “male” pelvis. Inlet has a narrow, shallow posterior portion and pointed anterior portion.

D. Measurements
1. External – suggestive only of pelvic site.
a. Intercristal – distance between the middle points of the iliac crests.
Average = 28 cm.
b. Interspinous – distance between the anterosuperior iliac spines. Average = 25 cm.
c. Intertrochanteric – distance between the trochanters of the femur. Average = 31 cm.
d. External conjugate/Daudelocque’s – the distance between the anterior aspect of the symphysis pubis and depression below L5. Average = 18-20 cm.
2. Internal – give the actual diameters of the inlet and outlet
a. Diagonal conjugate – distance between sacral promontory and inferior margin of the symphysis pubis. Average = 12.5 cm.
b. True conjugate/conjugata vera – distance between the anterior surface of the sacral promontory and the superior margin of the symphysis pubis. Very important measurement because it is the diameter of the pelvic inlet. Average = 10.5 - 11 cm.
c. Bi-ischial diameter/tuberischial – transverse diameter of the pelvic outlet. Is measured at the level of the anus. Average = 11 cm
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II. The Internal Reproductive Organs



A. Vagina – a 3-4 inch long dilatable canal located between the bladder and the rectum; contains rugae (which permit considerable stretching without tearing); passageway for menstrual discharges, copulation and fetus. CBQ

B. Uterus – hollow pear-shaped fibromuscular organ 3 inches long, 2 inches wide, 1 inch thick, and weighing 50-60 grams in a non-pregnant woman; hold in place by broad ligaments (from sides of the uterus to pelvic wall; also hold Fallopian tubes and ovaries in place) and round ligaments (from sides of uterus to mons pubis); abundant blood supply from uterine and ovarian arteries; composed of three muscle layers (perimetrium, myometrium, and endometrium). Consists of three parts: corpus (body) – upper portion with triangular part called fundus; isthmus – area between corpus and cervix which forms part of the lower uterine segment; and, - cylindrical portion. Organ of menstruation, site of implantation and retainment and nourishment of the products of conception. Main support comes from cardinal ligaments

C. Fallopian Tubes – 4 inches long from each side of the fundus; widest part (called ampulla) spreads into fingerlike projections (called fimbriae). Responsible for transport of mature ovum from ovary to uterus; fertilization takes place in its outer third or outer half.

D. Ovaries – almond-shaped, dull white sex glands near the fimbriae, kept in place by ligaments. Produce, mature and expel ova and manufacture estrogen and progesterone
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I. The External Reproductive Organs


Mons Pubis or Veneris – pad of fat which lies over the symphysis pubis covered by skin and at puberty, by short hairs; protects the surrounding delicate tissues from trauma.
B. Labia Majora – two folds of skin with fat underneath; contain Bartholin’s glands (believed to secrete a yellowish mucus which acts as a lubricant during sexual intercourse. The openings of the Bartholin’s glands are located posteriorly on either side of the vagina orifice.
C. Labia Minora – two thin folds of delicate tissues; form an upper fold encircling the clitoris (called the prepuce) and unite posteriorly (called the fourchetes, which is highly sensitive to manipulation and trauma that is why it is often torn during a woman’s delivery.)
D. Clitoris – small, erectile structure at the anterior junction of the labia minora, which is comparable to the penis in its being extremely sensitive. Landmark for catheterization
E. Vestibule – narrow space seen when the labia minora are separated.
F. Urethral Meatus – external opening of the urethra; slightly behind and to the side are the openings of the Skene’s glands (which are often involved in infections of the external genitalia).
G. Vaginal orifice/Introitus – external opening of the vagina, covered by a thin membrane (called hymen) in virgins. Myrtiform caruncle
H. Perineum – area from the lower border of the vaginal orifice to the anus; contains the muscles (e.g., pubococcygeal and levator ani) which support the pelvic organs, the arteries that supply blood and the pudendal nerves which are important during delivery under anesthesia
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Maternal and Child Nursing Overview

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
I. The External Reproductive Organs
II. The Internal Reproductive Organs
III. The Pelvis
IV. Feedback Mechanism of Menstruation
PREGNANCY AND PRENATAL CARE
I. Obstetric Terms in Statistical Data
II. Fertilization
III. Implantation
IV. Fetal Development
V. Focus of Fetal Development
VI. Normal Adaptation in Pregnancy
VII. The Prenatal Visit
LABOR AND DELIVERY
I. The Fetal Skull
II. Theories of Labor Onset
III. Preliminary/prodromal Signs of Labor
IV. Signs of True Labor
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Fundamentals of Nursing Flash Review

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